Research & Evidence

Overview

Periodization structures training across weeks, months, and seasons to peak performance at target events. For cyclists, this means systematically developing aerobic base, threshold power, race-specific fitness, and peaking when it matters. This document covers periodization models, phase characteristics, and practical planning.

Periodization Fundamentals

Why Periodize?

Linear training (doing the same thing year-round) leads to:

• •Plateaus in fitness
• •Accumulated fatigue
• •Burnout and staleness
• •Missed peak performance opportunities

Periodization provides:

• •Systematic adaptation
• •Recovery built in
• •Performance peaks at target events
• •Long-term progression

The Annual Training Plan

Base Period

Purpose

Build the aerobic engine that powers all cycling performance.

Characteristics

Key Workouts

Training Distribution

• •Z1-Z2: 80-90%
• •Z3: 10-15%
• •Z4+: <5%

Duration

• •Recreational: 6-8 weeks
• •Competitive: 10-16 weeks
• •Professional: 12-20 weeks

Key insight: Don't rush base. Aerobic adaptations take time but provide the foundation for all higher-intensity work.

Build Period

Purpose

Develop race-specific fitness—threshold power, VO2max, and race simulation.

Characteristics

Key Workouts

Training Distribution

• •Z1-Z2: 70-75%
• •Z3: 5-10%
• •Z4: 10-15%
• •Z5+: 5-10%

Duration

• •Recreational: 4-6 weeks
• •Competitive: 6-10 weeks

Peak Period

Purpose

Sharpen fitness, reduce fatigue, achieve peak form for target event.

Characteristics

Key Workouts

Volume Reduction (Taper)

Key insight: Intensity stays high; volume drops. This maintains fitness while allowing recovery.

Race Period

In-Season Management

Once racing begins:

• •Racing provides high-intensity stimulus
• •Reduce structured intervals
• •Focus on recovery between races
• •Maintain base with Z2 rides

Weekly Structure During Racing

Transition Period

Purpose

Physical and mental recovery after racing season.

Characteristics

• •Duration: 2-4 weeks
• •Activity: Cross-training, unstructured riding
• •Goal: Return to training feeling fresh
• •Volume: Very low
• •Intensity: None prescribed

Activities

• •Easy social rides
• •Other sports (running, hiking, swimming)
• •Complete rest days
• •No training structure

Mesocycle Structure

3:1 and 4:1 Patterns

Within each period, training is organized into blocks:

3:1 (3 weeks hard, 1 week easy):

• •Week 1: 100% volume/intensity
• •Week 2: 105-110%
• •Week 3: 110-115%
• •Week 4: 60-70% (recovery)

4:1 (4 weeks hard, 1 week easy):

• •Weeks 1-4: Progressive increase
• •Week 5: Recovery

Choose based on:

• •Recovery capacity (older athletes may need 3:1)
• •Training load (higher loads need more frequent recovery)
• •Life stress

Recovery Week Guidelines

• •Volume: 50-70% of peak week
• •Intensity: Reduced but not eliminated
• •No testing or hard efforts
• •Sleep and nutrition focus

Periodization for Different Goals

Gran Fondo / Century

Time Trial / FTP

Criterium / Road Race

Common Mistakes

Key Takeaways

• •Base building is foundational—don't skip it
• •Build period develops race-specific fitness
• •Peak period reduces volume, maintains intensity
• •Recovery weeks are mandatory (every 3-4 weeks)
• •Taper drops volume by 40-60%
• •Annual plan should identify target events
• •Different goals require different builds
• •Transition period prevents burnout

References

• •Bompa T, Buzzichelli C (2018). Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training.
• •Friel J (2012). The Cyclist's Training Bible.
• •Seiler S, Tønnessen E (2009). Intervals, thresholds, and long slow distance: the role of intensity and duration in endurance training. Sportscience.

Overview

Cycling demands sustained mental focus over extended durations. Research shows professional cyclists are more resistant to mental fatigue than recreational cyclists—a skill that can be trained. The mental game affects pacing, pain tolerance, and the ability to dig deep when it matters.

Psychological Demands of Cycling

Duration and Monotony

Long rides challenge sustained attention:

• •Hours in the saddle require mental management
• •Indoor training particularly tests mental endurance
• •Time trial efforts demand constant focus

Pacing and Decision-Making

The psychobiological model of endurance performance shows:

• •Mental fatigue increases perceived effort
• •Poor pacing decisions often have mental origins
• •Tactical decisions require cognitive clarity

Pain and Power

Cycling at threshold and above requires:

• •High pain tolerance
• •Ability to maintain power despite discomfort
• •Trust in training and pacing strategy

Core Mental Skills for Cycling

1. Association and Dissociation

Association (internal focus): Monitoring power, heart rate, breathing, leg sensation

Best For:

• •Time trials (constant effort monitoring)
• •Intervals (precise power targets)
• •Racing (tactical awareness)

Dissociation (external focus): Music, scenery, conversation, podcasts

Best For:

• •Base/endurance rides
• •Long indoor sessions
• •Recovery rides

2. Self-Talk for Cycling

Power/Effort Cues:

• •"Smooth power"
• •"Steady watts"
• •"Control the effort"

Climbing Cues:

• •"Light on the pedals"
• •"Spin up"
• •"One pedal stroke at a time"

Suffering Cues:

• •"Embrace the burn"
• •"This is where fitness is built"
• •"Temporary pain, lasting gain"

Time Trial Cues:

• •"Relax and push"
• •"Long and smooth"
• •"Process the pain"

3. Pain Management

Cycling at intensity means sustained discomfort. Research shows:

• •Pain tolerance is trainable
• •Acceptance reduces suffering more than fighting
• •Reframing pain as "effort signal" helps

Pain Reframing:

• •Instead of: "This hurts, something's wrong"
• •Try: "This sensation means I'm working hard"

Attention Strategies:

• •Focus on power numbers (external reference)
• •Counting pedal strokes
• •Breathing rhythm
• •Mantra repetition

4. Mental Fatigue Resistance

Brain Endurance Training (BET): Research suggests cognitive training can improve endurance:

• •Perform cognitive tasks while fatigued
• •Build resistance to mental fatigue
• •May lead to neuroplastic changes

Practical Application:

• •Practice focus during hard intervals
• •Train decision-making when tired
• •Avoid excessive cognitive load before key sessions

5. Time Trial Psychology

The time trial is a pure mental test—you against the clock.

Pre-TT Routine:

1. 1.Course visualization (key sections, pacing)
2. 2.Arousal calibration (calm focus)
3. 3.Process goals (power targets, not time)
4. 4.Confident self-talk

During TT:

• •First 5%: Resist going too hard
• •Middle: Settle into sustainable suffering
• •Final 20%: Mental push to increase effort
• •Final 5%: Everything you have left

Pacing Psychology:

• •Start conservative (perceived effort lies early)
• •Build gradually
• •Save mental reserves for the finish

6. Indoor Training Psychology

Trainer sessions are mentally harder than outdoor rides.

Strategies:

• •Structured workouts (clear goals)
• •Music/entertainment for endurance rides
• •Virtual platforms for variety
• •Social rides when possible
• •Break sessions into segments

Visualization on Trainer:

• •Imagine outdoor routes
• •Visualize race scenarios
• •Feel wind and terrain changes

Racing Psychology

Tactical Focus

Road racing requires:

• •Reading the race (who's strong, who's tired)
• •Positioning awareness
• •Decision-making under fatigue
• •Conserving energy for key moments

Mental Preparation:

• •Pre-race visualization of scenarios
• •"If-then" planning for tactics
• •Confidence in fitness and training

Breakaway Psychology

Initiating or joining a break requires:

• •Belief you can stay away
• •Commitment to the effort
• •Pain tolerance for extended hard effort
• •Mental game with chasers

Sprint Psychology

The final sprint demands:

• •Maximal arousal at precise moment
• •Positioning focus
• •All-out effort without hesitation
• •Recovery from any contact/chaos

Climbing Psychology

Long Climb Strategy:

• •Segment into sections
• •Pace by power, not competitors
• •Mantras for suffering
• •Focus on pedal stroke

Short/Steep Climbs:

• •Higher arousal appropriate
• •Motivational self-talk
• •Visual focus on top

Training Psychology

Building Mental Fitness

Every training session is an opportunity:

• •Intervals: Practice focus and pain tolerance
• •Endurance: Practice attention management
• •Recovery: Practice psychological restoration

Sweet Spot and Threshold Training

These zones are particularly mental:

• •Uncomfortable but sustainable
• •Mind wants to quit before body needs to
• •Practice pushing through mental limits

Strategy:

• •Know your power targets
• •Trust the numbers, not feelings
• •Use self-talk to bridge difficult moments

Indoor vs. Outdoor

Train mentally for both:

• •Indoor: Build pure focus and pain tolerance
• •Outdoor: Add environmental awareness

Visualization for Cycling

Race Course Visualization

Before races:

• •Study course profile and key sections
• •Visualize your effort at each point
• •Imagine successful navigation of challenges
• •See yourself finishing strong

Interval Visualization

Before hard sessions:

• •See yourself completing each interval
• •Feel the power and rhythm
• •Visualize recovery between efforts

Scenario Visualization

Prepare for racing situations:

• •Attacks and responses
• •Mechanical issues and composure
• •Weather challenges
• •Finishing scenarios

Pre-Race Routine

Night Before

• •Course review (one final time)
• •Equipment prepared
• •Visualization session (10-15 min)
• •Sleep routine

Race Morning

• •Familiar breakfast routine
• •Arrive with adequate time
• •Warm-up protocol
• •Final mental preparation

Pre-Start

• •Arousal calibration
• •Process focus (power targets, tactics)
• •Confidence statements
• •Release outcome attachment

Mental Recovery for Cyclists

Post-Ride

• •Brief reflection (what went well)
• •Physical and mental wind-down
• •Avoid excessive analysis

Between Training Days

• •Psychological detachment from training
• •Non-cycling activities
• •Quality sleep

After Racing

• •Allow emotional processing
• •Constructive reflection (not rumination)
• •Celebrate effort regardless of result

References

1. 1.Marcora, S.M. (2008). Do we really need a central governor to explain brain regulation of exercise performance? European Journal of Applied Physiology.
2. 2.McCormick, A., et al. (2015). Psychological determinants of whole-body endurance performance. Sports Medicine.
3. 3.Van Cutsem, J., et al. (2017). The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine.
4. 4.Martin, K., et al. (2018). Mental fatigue impairs endurance performance: A physiological explanation. Sports Medicine.
5. 5.Pageaux, B., & Lepers, R. (2016). Fatigue induced by physical and mental exertion increases perception of effort and impairs subsequent endurance performance. Frontiers in Physiology.

Overview

Power-based training revolutionized cycling by providing an objective, instantaneous measure of work output. Understanding power zones—how they're defined, what they train, and how to use them—is fundamental to effective cycling training. This document covers zone systems, training distribution, and practical application.

For deeper understanding of the physiological foundations, see:

• •../../common/science/cardiorespiratory_system.md - Training zones, VT1/VT2 anchors, cardiac drift, VO2max
• •../../common/science/muscular_system.md - Fiber types, endurance vs power adaptations

Note on heart rate zones: Power zones are more reliable than heart rate zones because power is instantaneous and objective. Heart rate is affected by cardiac drift (HR rises during prolonged efforts at constant power), heat, hydration, caffeine, and fatigue. However, HR remains valuable for monitoring internal load and recovery status. See cardiorespiratory_system.md for details on physiological zone anchors (VT1/VT2).

What Is FTP?

Functional Threshold Power

FTP (Functional Threshold Power) is the highest average power you can sustain for approximately one hour. It represents the threshold between primarily aerobic and increasingly anaerobic work.

Key characteristics:

• •Correlates closely with lactate threshold
• •Used to define training zones
• •Should be retested every 4-8 weeks
• •Expressed in watts (absolute) or watts/kg (relative)

Testing FTP

Recommendation: The 20-minute test is most practical for most cyclists. The 0.95 multiplier accounts for the higher power possible over shorter duration.

The 7-Zone Model

The most common power zone model uses 7 zones based on FTP:

Zone Details

Zone 1: Active Recovery (<55% FTP)

Feel: Very easy, conversation effortless Purpose: Recovery between hard sessions, active rest Training use: Recovery rides, cool-downs Duration: Any length; doesn't create training stress

Zone 2: Endurance (56-75% FTP)

Feel: Comfortable, can talk in sentences Purpose: Build aerobic base, fat oxidation, mitochondrial density Training use: Long rides, base building Duration: 1-6+ hours Key insight: The foundation of cycling fitness. Most training time should be here.

Zone 3: Tempo (76-90% FTP)

Feel: Moderate effort, can talk but prefer not to Purpose: Develop aerobic capacity, muscular endurance Training use: Tempo rides, "sweet spot" training (88-93%) Duration: 20 min to 2 hours Caution: Too much Z3 creates fatigue without Z4 benefits—the "gray zone"

Zone 4: Threshold (91-105% FTP)

Feel: Hard, limited conversation, sustainable but demanding Purpose: Raise FTP, improve lactate clearance Training use: Threshold intervals, FTP work Duration: 8-60 min total work Key insight: Most specific for FTP improvement. Use strategically.

Zone 5: VO2max (106-120% FTP)

Feel: Very hard, breathing is primary focus Purpose: Improve VO2max, maximal aerobic capacity Training use: VO2max intervals (3-8 min efforts) Duration: 3-8 min per interval, 15-30 min total work Key insight: Highly effective but fatiguing. 1-2 sessions/week maximum.

Zone 6: Anaerobic Capacity (121-150% FTP)

Feel: Extremely hard, can't sustain Purpose: Develop anaerobic power, lactate tolerance Training use: Short, hard intervals (30s-3 min) Duration: 30s-3 min per interval Use case: Attacks, short climbs, race-specific

Zone 7: Neuromuscular Power (Max)

Feel: All-out sprint Purpose: Maximum power output, sprint ability Training use: Sprints, max efforts Duration: <30 seconds Use case: Sprint finishes, jump acceleration

Training Distribution

The Polarized Model

Research consistently shows elite endurance athletes train with a "polarized" distribution:

Why this works:

• •Easy work builds base without excessive fatigue
• •Hard work provides potent training stimulus
• •Minimal "gray zone" (Z3) prevents accumulated fatigue

The Sweet Spot Alternative

Sweet spot training (88-93% FTP) offers a middle ground:

• •More training stimulus than pure Z2
• •Less fatiguing than Z4 intervals
• •Popular for time-limited athletes

Trade-off: Higher fatigue than polarized; may limit total volume.

Distribution by Training Phase

Practical Applications

Sample Workouts by Zone

Weekly Structure Example

10-hour training week:

Power vs Heart Rate

Advantages of Power

When Heart Rate Is Useful

• •Monitoring fatigue (elevated HR at same power = fatigue)
• •Long easy rides (power meter battery, simplicity)
• •Understanding aerobic decoupling
• •Athletes without power meters

The Decoupling Test

Aerobic fitness indicator:

• •Ride 60-90 min at steady Z2 power
• •Compare first-half HR to second-half HR
• •If HR rises >5% at same power = aerobic fitness needs work

Common Mistakes

Key Takeaways

• •FTP defines training zones; test it regularly
• •7-zone model is standard; Z2 and Z4-5 are most important
• •Polarized training: 80% easy, 20% hard
• •Avoid excessive tempo (Z3)—it's the "gray zone"
• •Power is superior to HR for training prescription
• •Training distribution matters as much as workout design

References

• •Coggan A, Allen H (2010). Training and Racing with a Power Meter.
• •Seiler S (2010). What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? Int J Sports Physiol Perform.
• •Sylta Ø, Tønnessen E, Seiler S (2014). From heart-rate data to training quantification: a comparison of 3 methods of training-intensity analysis. Int J Sports Physiol Perform.