Research & Evidence

Overview

Running performance depends on three energy systems working together. Understanding how to train each system is key to effective programming.

For deeper understanding of the physiological foundations, see:

• •../../common/science/cardiorespiratory_system.md - Oxygen delivery chain, cardiac adaptations, VO2max
• •../../common/science/muscular_system.md - Fiber types, muscle adaptations

The Three Energy Systems

1. Aerobic System (Zone 1-2)

The aerobic system produces energy using oxygen. It's the most efficient system and provides the foundation for all running performance.

Characteristics:

• •Unlimited duration potential
• •Uses fat and carbohydrates as fuel
• •Produces minimal lactate
• •Takes longest to develop (weeks to months)

Key adaptations from aerobic training:

• •Increased mitochondrial density (4-8 weeks for meaningful change)
• •Enhanced capillary networks (angiogenesis—2-8 weeks, see cardiorespiratory_system.md)
• •Improved fat oxidation
• •Greater cardiac output (stroke volume increases with eccentric cardiac hypertrophy)
• •Better running economy

Cardiovascular adaptations in detail: Zone 1-2 training triggers capillary sprouting within 2-4 weeks. These new capillaries increase oxygen delivery surface area and reduce diffusion distance to muscle fibers. Cardiac stroke volume improves through left ventricular dilation over months of consistent training.

How we train it:

• •Easy runs at conversational pace
• •Long runs at easy effort
• •Recovery runs
• •80% of total running volume

2. Lactate Threshold System (Zone 3-4)

The lactate threshold is the intensity at which lactate begins to accumulate faster than it can be cleared. Training at threshold improves the body's ability to clear lactate.

Characteristics:

• •Sustainable for 30-60 minutes in trained runners
• •"Comfortably hard" feeling
• •Critical for 10K through marathon performance
• •Responds quickly to training (2-4 weeks)

Key adaptations:

• •Higher lactate clearance rate
• •Improved buffering capacity
• •Enhanced pace perception
• •Mental toughness development

How we train it:

• •Tempo runs (20-40 minutes sustained)
• •Cruise intervals (5-10 min repeats with short rest)
• •Marathon pace runs
• •10-15% of total running volume

3. VO2max System (Zone 4-5)

VO2max represents maximum oxygen uptake. Training at this intensity develops the upper limit of aerobic capacity.

Characteristics:

• •Sustainable for 3-8 minutes
• •Very demanding - feels "hard"
• •Key for 5K and 10K performance
• •Responds quickly to training (4-8 weeks)

Key adaptations:

• •Increased cardiac stroke volume
• •Enhanced oxygen delivery to muscles
• •Improved lactate tolerance
• •Greater mental resilience

How we train it:

• •Interval training (3-5 minute repeats)
• •Hill repeats
• •5K pace running
• •5-10% of total running volume

Fuel Usage by Zone

Training Periodization by System

Base Phase (Weeks 1-8)

• •Focus: Aerobic system development
• •Distribution: 85% easy, 10% moderate, 5% hard
• •Key sessions: Easy runs, long runs, strides

Build Phase (Weeks 9-16)

• •Focus: Lactate threshold development
• •Distribution: 80% easy, 12% moderate, 8% hard
• •Key sessions: Tempo runs, VO2max intervals

Peak Phase (Weeks 17-20)

• •Focus: Race-specific sharpening
• •Distribution: 75% easy, 15% moderate, 10% hard
• •Key sessions: Race pace work, tune-up races

Why the 80/20 Rule Works

Research consistently shows that elite runners spend 80% of their training at low intensity. This polarized approach:

1. 1.Protects the aerobic system - Easy running allows aerobic adaptations without excessive stress
2. 2.Enables quality - Fresh legs mean hard sessions can be truly hard
3. 3.Reduces injury risk - Less cumulative stress on tissues
4. 4.Promotes consistency - Sustainable training leads to long-term gains

The "middle ground" of moderate intensity provides neither the aerobic benefits of easy running nor the specific adaptations of hard training, while generating significant fatigue.

Overview

The psychology of running is as crucial to performance as physical training. Research shows that psychological skills training (PST) produces moderate-to-large effect sizes (Hedges' g = 0.83) for athletic performance—comparable to years of additional physical training.

This guide synthesizes evidence-based mental skills specific to running.

Attention Strategies: Association vs. Dissociation

Running requires managing attention over extended periods. Two broad strategies exist:

Association (Internal Focus)

Monitoring internal sensations—breathing, heart rate, muscle tension, fatigue levels.

Best for:

• •Competitive events and races
• •Hard efforts (tempo, intervals, threshold)
• •Elite-level performance
• •Self-pacing and effort regulation

Why it works: Association enables better effort monitoring, injury prevention, and performance optimization. Elite runners predominantly use association.

Dissociation (External Focus)

Directing attention away from internal sensations—music, scenery, conversation, daydreaming.

Best for:

• •Easy runs and recovery runs
• •Long runs (early miles)
• •Recreational running
• •Managing perceived exertion

Why it works: Dissociation lowers perceived exertion and increases task enjoyment, making it easier to sustain moderate effort.

The D/A Threshold

Research shows that as exercise intensity increases, attention naturally shifts toward association. The "dissociative/associative threshold" is the point where dissociation becomes impossible—the body's signals demand attention.

Practical application: Use dissociation during easy running, but expect and allow the shift to association as intensity increases.

Self-Talk for Runners

Self-talk is one of the most evidence-based mental skills, with a medium effect size (d = 0.48) for performance enhancement.

Types of Self-Talk

Instructional Self-Talk (technique-focused):

• •"Light feet"
• •"Relax shoulders"
• •"Quick turnover"
• •"Breathe rhythm"

Motivational Self-Talk (effort/confidence-focused):

• •"Strong and smooth"
• •"You've done this before"
• •"One mile at a time"
• •"This is what you trained for"

Research Insight

Instructional self-talk is more effective for fine motor adjustments; motivational self-talk is better for sustained effort and confidence.

When It Matters Most

The psychobiological model of endurance performance shows that positive self-talk reduces perceived effort by activating brain regions associated with motivation. When you tell yourself "I can do this," you literally make the effort feel easier.

Visualization and Mental Imagery

The PETTLEP Model

PETTLEP (Holmes & Collins, 2001) is the gold standard for sport imagery, producing up to 29% performance improvements when combined with practice.

P - Physical: Adopt the physical position you'll be in (standing at start line, not lying down)

E - Environment: Visualize the actual environment (course, weather, sounds)

T - Task: Imagine the exact task (race pace, breathing, form)

T - Timing: Real-time or slight slow-motion, not fast-forward

L - Learning: Adapt imagery as skills improve

E - Emotion: Include the feelings—excitement, determination, flow

P - Perspective: First-person (through your eyes) or third-person (watching yourself)

Running-Specific Visualization

Pre-race visualization should include:

• •Course features (hills, turns, finish line)
• •Pacing sensations at each phase
• •Potential challenges and how you'll respond
• •The moment of achieving your goal

Michael Phelps' coach Bob Bowman had him visualize hundreds of times before races, including everything that could go wrong—and how he'd handle it.

Managing the "Dark Place"

Every runner knows the moment when everything screams "stop." Research on ultramarathoners reveals strategies for navigating these moments:

The Postponement Strategy

When you want to quit, don't decide now. Postpone the decision: "I'll decide at the next mile marker." This prevents emotion-driven choices during temporary lows.

Mantras as Mental Anchors

A mantra is a simple phrase repeated during suffering:

• •"Pain is temporary"
• •"Embrace the suck"
• •"Strong mind, strong body"
• •"This is what I signed up for"

Research shows mantras reset thinking and provide focus when the mind wants to negotiate.

Anticipating the Low

Paradoxically, expecting a dark moment can make it worse. Coach wisdom: "At some point, demons show up—often small and harmless until you feed them."

The solution: Acknowledge that difficulty is part of running, but don't catastrophize or dwell on when it will arrive.

Pain Tolerance and Suffering

The Science

• •Athletes show greater pain tolerance (effect size g = 0.88) than non-athletes
• •Endurance athletes have higher tolerance than strength athletes
• •The difference is tolerance, not threshold—the pain arrives at the same point, but runners can endure it longer

Building Pain Tolerance

1. 1.Acceptance: "Pain is inevitable" is the ultrarunner's mantra. Fighting pain increases suffering; accepting it reduces distress.

1. 1.Reframing: Pain as signal of adaptation, not damage. "This discomfort is making me better."

1. 1.Mindfulness: Notice pain without judgment. Research shows enhanced interoception (body awareness) helps athletes navigate pain.

1. 1.Exposure: Regularly training at uncomfortable intensities builds psychological resilience alongside physical adaptation.

Pre-Race Routine

Elements of Effective Pre-Performance Routines

Meta-analysis shows pre-performance routines produce moderate-to-large effects (g = 0.64-0.70) across skill levels.

Suggested pre-race routine:

1. 1.Physical preparation: Warm-up, dynamic stretching, strides
2. 2.Environmental orientation: Walk the start area, visualize the first mile
3. 3.Mental preparation: Review race plan, process goals
4. 4.Activation: Adjust arousal to your optimal zone (some need calming, others need energizing)
5. 5.Focus cue: A single word or phrase that anchors your intention

Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF)

Research by Hanin shows athletes have individual optimal arousal zones:

• •Some runners perform best when calm and relaxed
• •Others need high energy and excitement
• •70% of athletes in their optimal zone perform successfully

Know your zone: Reflect on your best races—were you pumped up or calm?

Training the Mental Game

During Easy Runs

• •Practice dissociation consciously
• •Use time for gratitude or problem-solving
• •Build positive associations with running

During Hard Efforts

• •Practice self-talk scripts
• •Use association to monitor form and effort
• •Work on mantras for tough moments

Before Races

• •Rehearse visualization regularly (not just race week)
• •Practice pre-race routine in training
• •Simulate race-day conditions in key workouts

References

1. 1.Brown, D.J., et al. (2023). Effects of Psychological Interventions to Enhance Athletic Performance. Sports Medicine.
2. 2.Hatzigeorgiadis, A., et al. (2011). Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science.
3. 3.Masters, K.S., & Ogles, B.M. (1998). Associative and Dissociative Cognitive Strategies in Exercise and Running. The Sport Psychologist.
4. 4.Holmes, P.S., & Collins, D.J. (2001). The PETTLEP Approach to Motor Imagery. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.
5. 5.Hanin, Y.L. (2000). Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Model. Emotions in Sport.

What is Periodization?

Periodization is the systematic planning of training to maximize performance at the right time. Instead of training randomly, we organize training into phases, each with a specific purpose.

Why Periodization Matters

Without periodization:

• •Training becomes random and unfocused
• •Fitness plateaus occur
• •Injury risk increases from monotony
• •Peak performance happens by accident (if at all)

With periodization:

• •Each phase builds on the previous
• •Fitness peaks at goal race
• •Variety reduces injury risk
• •Progress is measurable and motivating

The Phases Explained

Base Phase: Building the Foundation

Purpose: Develop aerobic capacity and running durability.

The base phase is where we build the engine. Most runners want to skip this phase because it feels "easy," but the aerobic foundation developed here supports everything that follows.

Key characteristics:

• •High volume, low intensity
• •Long runs at easy pace
• •Minimal quality sessions
• •Building mileage gradually

What's happening physiologically:

• •Mitochondria are multiplying
• •Capillary networks expanding
• •Tendons and ligaments strengthening
• •Running economy improving

Common mistake: Adding intensity too soon. Be patient - the base phase pays dividends later.

Build Phase: Adding Race-Specific Fitness

Purpose: Develop the specific fitness needed for your goal race.

Now we add the finishing touches. The aerobic engine is built; it's time to tune it for your specific event.

Key characteristics:

• •Balanced intensity distribution
• •Introduction of tempo runs
• •VO2max intervals appear
• •Volume may peak then stabilize

What's happening physiologically:

• •Lactate threshold rising
• •VO2max improving
• •Race pace becoming familiar
• •Mental toughness developing

Common mistake: Doing too much quality work. Two quality sessions per week is usually sufficient.

Peak Phase: Sharpening

Purpose: Fine-tune fitness and practice race execution.

The heavy lifting is done. Now we sharpen the sword.

Key characteristics:

• •Reduced volume
• •Race-pace sessions
• •Tune-up races
• •Mental preparation focus

What's happening physiologically:

• •Neural pathways optimizing
• •Race pace becoming automatic
• •Confidence building
• •Body ready to perform

Common mistake: Adding fitness panic training. Trust your preparation.

Taper: Final Preparation

Purpose: Arrive at race day fresh and ready.

The hardest phase mentally - you're cutting back when instinct says to train more.

Key characteristics:

• •Volume drops 40-70%
• •Intensity maintained (reduced volume)
• •Sleep and nutrition priority
• •Mental rehearsal

What's happening physiologically:

• •Glycogen stores maximizing
• •Muscle repair completing
• •Hormonal balance optimizing
• •Freshness returning

Common mistake: Running too much because of nervousness. Trust the taper.

Progressive Overload Principle

Training must progressively increase to stimulate adaptation. However, this doesn't mean always doing more:

Ways to progress:

1. 1.Volume (more miles)
2. 2.Intensity (harder efforts)
3. 3.Density (same work, less rest)
4. 4.Specificity (more race-like sessions)

Key rule: Only progress one variable at a time.

The Deload Week

Every 4th week should be a recovery week:

• •Volume reduced 20-30%
• •No quality sessions
• •Focus on sleep and recovery

This allows:

• •Tissue repair
• •Hormonal balance restoration
• •Mental freshness
• •Consolidation of adaptations

Individualization

While the principles are universal, application varies:

• •Older runners may need more recovery
• •Injury-prone runners need conservative progression
• •High-responders can handle more volume
• •Life stress affects training capacity

The best periodization plan is one you can execute consistently.