Research & Evidence

Overview

Swimming presents unique psychological demands: sensory deprivation, breath control, and the monotony of staring at a black line. Research shows psychological skills training improves swimming performance significantly—one study found a 7-week PST program improved times across multiple strokes.

Psychological Demands of Swimming

Sensory Environment

The pool creates a unique mental context:

• •Limited visual stimulation
• •Altered auditory input (underwater)
• •Rhythmic, repetitive motion
• •Isolation from teammates/competitors

Breath Control

Unlike land sports, breathing is restricted:

• •Anxiety can arise from breath limitation
• •Rhythm disruption affects technique
• •Panic response possible under stress

Technical Precision

Swimming is highly technical:

• •Small form changes have large effects
• •Fatigue degrades technique
• •Mental focus on mechanics is constant

Training Monotony

Pool training can be mentally challenging:

• •Hours looking at black line
• •High yardage sessions
• •Repetitive sets

Core Mental Skills for Swimming

1. Visualization (The Phelps Approach)

Michael Phelps and coach Bob Bowman used visualization extensively:

• •Rehearsed races hundreds of times mentally
• •Visualized everything that could go wrong
• •Prepared responses to problems

PETTLEP for Swimming:

• •Physical: Stand poolside or in blocks position
• •Environment: See the pool, hear the sounds, feel the water
• •Task: Specific race/workout you're preparing for
• •Timing: Real-time (feel the race unfold at actual pace)
• •Learning: Update as technique improves
• •Emotion: Feel the confidence, the power, the finish
• •Perspective: First-person (through your eyes in the water)

What to Visualize:

• •Pre-race routine and dive
• •Stroke mechanics and rhythm
• •Turns and push-offs
• •Pacing sensations
• •Finish and wall touch
• •Problems and recovery (goggles, suit, false start)

2. Pre-Race Routine

Swimming's structured start allows for consistent routines:

Behind the Blocks (2-5 min before):

• •Physical preparation (stretching, arm swings)
• •Controlled breathing
• •Visualization of race
• •Self-talk cues

On the Blocks:

• •Focus narrows to reaction and dive
• •Clear mind of everything except start
• •Trust preparation

Research Finding: Elite swimmers have more consistent, longer pre-race routines than lower-level swimmers.

3. Self-Talk for Swimming

Technique Cues:

• •"Long and strong"
• •"Catch and pull"
• •"Rotate hips"
• •"Streamline"
• •"Quick turnover"

Pacing Cues:

• •"Build the race"
• •"Control first 50"
• •"Steady rhythm"

Motivational Cues:

• •"This is your race"
• •"Strong to the wall"
• •"One more length"

4. Breath Control and Anxiety

Water can trigger anxiety responses:

Building Comfort:

• •Gradual exposure to breath limitation
• •Hypoxic training (carefully)
• •Relaxation techniques before entering water

During Swimming:

• •Rhythmic breathing pattern
• •Exhale fully underwater
• •Trust the stroke

Competition Anxiety:

• •Deep breathing before race
• •Focus on controllables (own lane)
• •Process goals (stroke count, technique)

5. Managing Monotony

Long training sessions require mental strategies:

Attention Techniques:

• •Count strokes (focus tool)
• •Technique focus by segment
• •Mental math/games
• •Music before/after (not during)

Breaking Up Sessions:

• •Different focus each set
• •Goal for each interval
• •Visualization during rest

6. Race Pacing Psychology

Swimming races are short but intense:

Sprint Events (50-100):

• •All-out focus
• •No holding back
• •Trust speed
• •Finish hard

Middle Distance (200-400):

• •Controlled first quarter
• •Build through race
• •Mental push final 100
• •Strong finish

Distance (800-1500):

• •Patience early
• •Find rhythm
• •Mental segmentation
• •Finish kick

Race Psychology

Pre-Race Preparation

Visualization Protocol:

1. 1.See yourself on blocks, confident
2. 2.Feel the dive, the entry, the breakout
3. 3.Experience the stroke rhythm
4. 4.Navigate each turn
5. 5.Strong finish, touch the wall

Arousal Management:

• •Some swimmers need calming
• •Others need energizing
• •Know your optimal zone

Behind the Blocks

The moments before a race are critical:

• •Block out distractions
• •Focus on own lane
• •Routine provides structure
• •Trust arrives with preparation

Race Execution

First Length:

• •Don't panic at pace
• •Find stroke rhythm
• •Trust the dive advantage

Middle Lengths:

• •Maintain technique
• •Avoid early fatigue
• •Stay in your race (not others')

Final Push:

• •Increase turnover
• •Fight through pain
• •Strong finish to the wall

Post-Race

• •Brief technical review
• •Recover physically and mentally
• •Don't dwell on results
• •Focus on next event

Training Psychology

Making Practice Count

Every lap is mental training:

• •Focus on one technique element per set
• •Practice race-pace psychology
• •Visualize competition during hard sets

Handling High Yardage

Distance swimmers face volume challenges:

• •Mental breaks within sets
• •Technique focus segments
• •Acceptance of discomfort
• •Long-term perspective

Quality Sessions

For sprinters/power swimmers:

• •Full mental engagement each rep
• •Visualization between efforts
• •Race simulation mindset

Open Water Psychology

Open water adds unique challenges:

Navigation:

• •Sighting without losing rhythm
• •Dealing with uncertainty
• •Trust in preparation

Environmental Factors:

• •Waves, current, temperature
• •Acceptance and adaptation
• •Focus on controllables

Other Swimmers:

• •Physical contact
• •Maintaining composure
• •Finding clean water

Pacing Without Walls:

• •Internal rhythm
• •Association strategies
• •Landmark segmentation

Mental Recovery for Swimmers

Between Sets

• •Mental reset
• •Brief positive thought
• •Prepare for next challenge

Post-Practice

• •5-10 minutes of reflection
• •What went well?
• •What to focus on next time?

Off Days

• •Mental break from swimming
• •Other activities
• •Quality sleep

References

1. 1.Sheard, M., & Golby, J. (2006). Effect of a psychological skills training program on swimming performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.
2. 2.Cumming, J., & Hall, C. (2002). Athletes' use of imagery in the off-season. The Sport Psychologist.
3. 3.Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (1999). The effects of a multimodal intervention program on performers. The Sport Psychologist.
4. 4.Hatzigeorgiadis, A., et al. (2007). Self-talk and competitive sport performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.

Overview

Swimming utilizes all three energy systems differently than land-based sports due to the horizontal position, breath-holding intervals, and resistance characteristics of water. Understanding these demands helps structure training for specific goals, from 50m sprints to open water marathon swims.

For deeper understanding of the physiological foundations, see:

• •../../common/science/cardiorespiratory_system.md - Oxygen delivery, cardiac adaptations, training zones
• •../../common/science/muscular_system.md - Fiber types, endurance adaptations

Aquatic cardiovascular considerations: Water immersion increases cardiac preload due to hydrostatic pressure, which can increase stroke volume. The horizontal position redistributes blood compared to upright land exercise. Breath-holding intervals create unique oxygen desaturation patterns that affect cardiovascular response. These factors mean heart rate zones from land-based testing may not transfer directly to swimming—RPE and pace are often more reliable intensity guides in the water.

Energy System Review

The Three Systems

Swimming-Specific Considerations

Swimming differs from running/cycling:

• •Breath-holding creates different oxygen demands
• •Horizontal position affects blood distribution
• •Water resistance is velocity-squared
• •Technique efficiency varies more than in land sports

Event-Specific Energy Demands

Sprint Events (50-100m)

Characteristics:

• •Maximum effort from start
• •Technique must hold under fatigue
• •Breath control critical (50m often swum with minimal breaths)
• •Lactate peaks after race finish

Training focus: Sprint work, power, race-pace practice

Middle Distance (200-400m)

Characteristics:

• •Pacing becomes important
• •Sustained high effort
• •Lactate tolerance critical
• •Strong aerobic base supports

Training focus: Threshold work, race pace sets, aerobic base

Distance Events (800m+)

Characteristics:

• •Pacing is everything
• •Efficiency determines success
• •Aerobic capacity limits performance
• •Mental endurance matters

Training focus: Aerobic volume, efficiency, pacing practice

Open Water / Triathlon

Additional factors:

• •Navigation and sighting
• •Drafting dynamics
• •Cold water (affects energy)
• •Transition considerations

Training Zones for Swimming

Zone System

Threshold Determination

Swimming threshold can be estimated:

• •T-pace: Pace you can hold for ~30 min all-out
• •CSS (Critical Swim Speed): (400m time - 200m time) / 2
• •Perceived exertion: "Comfortably hard"

Training Distribution

Sample Training Sets by Energy System

ATP-PC Development (Sprinters)

Power sprints:

• •8 × 25m all-out
• •2-3 min rest between
• •Full recovery, max effort

Race pace work:

• •4 × 50m at race pace
• •3-4 min rest
• •Focus on technique under speed

Glycolytic (Lactate Tolerance)

VO2max set:

• •5 × 200m at Z5
• •30-45 sec rest
• •Build lactate, incomplete recovery

Descending set:

• •4 × 100m descending times
• •20 sec rest
• •Last one all-out

Aerobic Base

Long swim:

• •2000-3000m continuous
• •Z2 effort
• •Focus on technique

Aerobic intervals:

• •10 × 200m at Z2-3
• •15-20 sec rest
• •Build aerobic capacity

Breath Control and Energy Systems

The Hypoxic Factor

Swimming is unique in requiring breath control. Limited breathing affects:

• •Oxygen availability
• •CO2 tolerance
• •Stroke rhythm
• •Mental focus

Hypoxic Training

Controlled breath sets:

• •Build CO2 tolerance
• •Not true hypoxia (O2 doesn't drop significantly)
• •Improves comfort with limited breathing
• •Helps race breathing patterns

Example: 8 × 50m breathing every 5 strokes, 20 sec rest

Caution: Never hyperventilate before breath-hold sets—blackout risk.

Breathing Patterns by Event

Periodization for Swimming

Base Phase

• •High volume, low intensity
• •Build aerobic engine
• •Focus on technique
• •70-80% Z1-2

Build Phase

• •Maintain volume
• •Add threshold work
• •Race-pace introduction
• •Include Z4-5 sets

Peak Phase

• •Reduce volume
• •Maintain intensity
• •Race simulations
• •Taper properly

Taper Guidelines

Common Mistakes

Key Takeaways

• •Event duration determines energy system demands
• •Most swim training should be aerobic (even for sprinters)
• •Technique efficiency affects energy cost significantly
• •Lactate tolerance is critical for middle distance
• •Breath control is a trainable, swim-specific skill
• •Periodize training toward goal events
• •Sprint training requires full recovery between efforts
• •Distance training requires volume and efficiency focus

References

• •Maglischo EW (2003). Swimming Fastest.
• •Pyne DB, Lee H, Swanwick KM (2001). Monitoring the lactate threshold in world-ranked swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
• •Gastin PB (2001). Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise. Sports Med.

Overview

Swimming is the most technique-dependent endurance sport. Unlike running or cycling where power largely determines speed, swimming efficiency determines how much of your power actually propels you forward. This document covers the key technical elements that separate efficient swimmers from those who waste energy fighting the water.

The Efficiency Equation

Why Technique Matters

Key insight: A technically efficient swimmer at 70% effort will beat a powerful but inefficient swimmer at 100% effort.

The Drag Problem

Water is 800× denser than air. Every deviation from streamlined causes exponential drag increases:

• •Head lifting: dramatically increases drag
• •Wide kick: creates turbulence
• •Crossing centerline: creates lateral movement
• •Poor body position: increases frontal area

Freestyle (Front Crawl) Technique

Body Position

Goal: Horizontal body, minimal frontal area

Drill: Kick on side with arm extended—practice being horizontal.

The Catch

The catch is where propulsion begins. Most swimmers "slip" through the catch, losing potential propulsion.

High elbow catch elements:

1. 1.Hand enters shoulder-width, fingers first
2. 2.Fingertips angle down, elbow stays high
3. 3.Feel pressure on palm and forearm
4. 4."Catch" the water before pulling

Common mistakes:

• •Dropped elbow (pulling with bicep instead of lat)
• •Slipping entry (hand crosses centerline)
• •Early pull (before establishing catch)

Drill: Catch-up drill with focus on establishing catch before pull.

The Pull

Pull path:

1. 1.After catch, pull under body
2. 2.Hand passes under shoulder, then hip
3. 3.Push all the way past hip (finish!)
4. 4.Exit when thumb brushes thigh

Power source: Lats, not arms. Efficient swimmers use the back.

Common mistakes:

• •Short stroke (not finishing)
• •S-curve (outdated technique)
• •Pulling wide of body

The Kick

Freestyle kick purpose:

• •Body position stabilization (primary)
• •Minor propulsion
• •Rhythm maintenance

Efficient kick characteristics:

• •From hips, not knees
• •Small amplitude (~12 inches)
• •Feet pointed, flexible ankles
• •Continuous, not choppy

2-beat vs 6-beat:

Breathing

Goal: Breathe without disrupting body position.

Correct breathing:

• •Rotate body, don't lift head
• •One goggle stays in water
• •Exhale underwater (not at surface)
• •Quick breath, immediate return

Common mistakes:

• •Lifting head (causes hips to sink)
• •Holding breath (builds CO2)
• •Breathing too late in stroke

Rotation

Body rotation is essential for:

• •Accessing lat muscles for power
• •Breathing position
• •Reducing shoulder stress
• •Setting up high elbow catch

Rotation amount: ~45-60 degrees to each side

Timing: Rotation is continuous—not flat, then rotate, then flat.

Other Strokes

Backstroke

Key elements:

• •Body rotation (same as freestyle)
• •Pinky-first entry, shoulder-width
• •High elbow catch (similar principle)
• •Continuous kick for balance

Breaststroke

Key elements:

• •Streamline position between strokes
• •Narrow pull (don't exceed shoulders)
• •Kick: heels to butt, then snap out and back
• •Timing: pull, breathe, kick, glide

Butterfly

Key elements:

• •Undulating body motion
• •Two kicks per stroke cycle
• •Arms enter together, pull with high elbows
• •Breathe forward, not up

Technical Assessment

Self-Assessment Questions

1. 1.Can you swim 100m easy without breathing hard?
2. 2.Do your legs sink when you swim?
3. 3.Do you feel like you're fighting the water?
4. 4.Can you glide in streamline for 5+ seconds?
5. 5.Can you breathe without lifting your head?

If "no" to any: technique work needed.

Stroke Count

Count strokes per 25m pool length:

Use: Track stroke count over time—decreasing count at same pace = improved efficiency.

SWOLF (Swimming Golf)

SWOLF = Time + Strokes for a length

Example: 30 seconds + 18 strokes = 48 SWOLF

Lower is better. Tracks combined speed and efficiency.

Technical Training

Drills

Drill Integration

Swim-drill-swim approach:

1. 1.50m swim normal
2. 2.50m drill
3. 3.50m swim with focus
4. 4.Repeat

Video Analysis

Video is the gold standard for technique improvement:

• •Above water (for recovery, entry)
• •Underwater (for catch, pull, kick)
• •Side view (for body position)
• •Front view (for hand entry, crossover)

Common Mistakes Summary

Key Takeaways

• •Technique determines ~70% of swimming speed
• •Drag reduction matters more than power
• •Body position is fundamental—fix this first
• •The catch is where propulsion begins
• •Rotation enables power and breathing
• •Count strokes to track efficiency
• •Regular drill work maintains and improves technique
• •Video analysis accelerates improvement
• •Swimming is a feel sport—spend time in the water

References

• •Maglischo EW (2003). Swimming Fastest.
• •Taormina S (2019). Swim Speed Secrets.
• •Total Immersion method principles (Laughlin T).